conditions: Dictionary Information

Condition —n. 1 stipulation; thing upon the fulfilment of which something else depends. 2 a state of being or fitness of a person or thing. B ailment, abnormality (heart condition). 3 (in pl.) circumstances, esp. Those affecting the functioning or existence of something (good working conditions). —v. 1 a bring into a good or desired state. B make fit (esp. Dogs or horses). 2 teach or accustom. 3 a impose conditions on. B be essential to.  in (or out of) condition in good (or bad) condition. On condition that with the stipulation that. [latin dico say]

conditions: Geographic Locations

conditions: Historical Excerpts

“bid the Chinese have any interest in the natural sciences a couple of thousand years ago for example-invite a glance at the pages captioned “Science and Technology subhead “china” for the periods 500-1 BC and 1-500 AD. Finally, should your objective be a swift resume of world conditions at a particular period





you can refer to the unit on 1 400j 500. The paragraph summaries heading the pages there, and the comments on the map page, outline signific,ant trends of the period for you, indicate cross-links between contemporar) events, and emphasize the forces and interrelationships that gave the period its historical configuration. In world history few specific dates. have universal significance. The chronological units of this Guide disregard the conventional periodization: ancient, medieval, and modern, traditional in European annals, and set their limiLs by cchturics or fractions of centuries. As the stream of history broadens, the periods contract to allow modern and recent developments the more detailed attention they merit. jEach unit, consists of. twelve pages and each follows the same pattern in the arrangement and classificarion of its subject matter. Tins synoptic presentation makes it eas)for a reader to compare conditions on all continents at the same period or to pursue the history of a single region or subject tlirough the centuries.





Asian wanderers who crossed Bering Strait, probably in intermittent groups from c25,000 to cl 0,000 were paleolithic or Neolithic hunters. After they had spread through North and South America, they appear to have evolved their own measure of civilization in areas where conditions per





General Economy Agriculture. Early peoples were skillful shepherds, farmers; well-irrigated fields yielded vegetables, grain, dates, olives, vineyards, fruit orchards; most domesticated animals now known were worked in early period; cattle were bred; oxen joined to plough; elephant may have been tamed in India, where water buffalo were used and domestic fowl believed to have originated; linen, flax, and cotton produced in Egypt; many varieties of fruits and grains grown in Fertile Crescent. Commerce. Trade developed when unfavorable agricultural conditions existed or need arose to dispose of surplus products; babylonians were early businessmen and traders; trade with Egypt flourished by 2700; phoenicians left rocky terrain for the sea cl 500; traded in metals, glass, ivory, purple dyes; bought raw materials, metals, and slaves from Lebanese in return for wool; phoenicians credited with first organized slave trade; Cretans traded their pottery, textiles, and metal goods with Egypt in 2d millennium bc; iron, tin, and silver from western Europe supplied the eastern Mediterranean; carried largely by phoenicians, leading merchant sailors by 1200; later by Greeks; silk, known in China as early as 3d millennium, carried overland to India, cl 500, later to Middle East. Finance. Barter the first universal method of exchange; gold and silver came into use at an early date; in China copper coins replaced cowrie shells as the principal measure of value; babylonians and Assyrians excellent financiers; used clay tablets; established business forms, including contracts, letters of credit, commercial loans, and receipts; taxes and rates of interest were regulated.





riRST civilized states were relasmall in area, being in fact city which controlled adjacent vilAs most of them developed in river valleys the stream itself proa link whereby the ruler of a city extend his power over his neighireating a league of cities or a;ic empire. Early governments in collective tasks too vast or exe for limited local resources, irrigation projects, the storing of s crops against a time of famine, le erection of the Pyramids and reat Wall of China are examples h imperial undertakings.; limits to which an empire could d and still hold together was deled by the radius of effective cornration. By the 3rd millennium ivention of written records made sible to record laws and dispatch ctions to governors of distant proi. The introduction of the horse 0 Bc) facilitated further expannot only because chariots could eed foot soldiers, but because ited couriers covered longer diss in a shorter time. ps, propelled by oars or sails, orig1 in prehistoric times and played creasing part in trade and commuion. States essentially dependent •laritime power developed more y; the first genuine thalassocracy probably Crete (c2000 bc) Later i’hoenicians, and later still the ks, took to the mediterranean, ilished colonies, and built empires were held together by sea power. almost tideless mediterranean its numerous islands invited namterprise. this map the critical area to ob: is the tiny Greek peninsula, a ed finger pointing southward into.lediterranean. This rocky, mounlus, fragmented land, in which no lity is more than 60 miles from the was the home of the Greeks and led to shape their character. The that liberty loves tire mountains the sea has some historical foundahe ancient empires of the Middle India, and China were primarily 1 empires. Societies rooted in the societies where the masses toil at culture, the bureaucracy is authorian, and defense rests with an army, i to remain static and conservative, h. conditions perpetuate a spirit of :ility, obedience, and orthodoxy: y do not encourage independence, iosity, and skepticism. ^ rising population and the limited ources of their homeland drove the





Greece Archimedes of Syracuse. Foremost physicist, mathematician; one of most aeative hellenistic thinkers; outstanding work in physics, static mechanics, hydrostatics; fundamental principles of equilibrium of weights; principles of lever; invented compound pulley, invaluable endless screw; discovered relative density of substances suspended in liquids (principle of specific pavity); in mathematics, determined value of IT (pi); worked on circle measurement, relations of sphere and cylinder, and mutual projections. Euclid. Leading mathematician, physicist; trained at Plato’s Academy; The, Elements (13 vols.) first integrated treatise on geometry; standard text for teaching elementary geometry; deductive method; laid foundation for scientific study of optics. Eratosthenes. alexandrian astronomer, geographer, geometer; referred to as founder of astronomical geography and scientific chronology’; made first relatively accurate measurement of circumference and diameter of earth. aristarchus of Samos. Astronomer, mathematician; first to advance heliocentric theory of universe and rotation ot earth on its axis; deduced that sun was arger than earth; theories not accepted, except by Seleucus (150 eg), Copernicus; improved sun dial; trigonometrical ratios. ■ ^“™nomer; elaborated VP theory of universe, leading view through Middle Ages; more ac from tion of t ’ accurate determinalogue of longitude; catanometry. disease “ observer; explained healW causes,and ■hippocratic oSi; sidan-% ’ /^ loodieea. c50bc. PhyHeved Sth condition of body^





Roman Empire Commerce and Industry. Newly conquered areas increased markets for eastern luxuries and copper, silver,;in, wool, hides, cloth, glassware of Lmpire; prosperity based on uniform;oinage, good roads, improved sea and :aravan travel; industrial production •emained limited, though merchants,.rtisans prospered; collegia (trade asociations) revived; maintained trade ecrets, worked for members’ political idvantage, entertainment, welfare. Agriculture. Remained basis of vealth and occupation of majority; mproved irrigation, fertilization with ime, manure; rotation and specializa,ion of crops; large estates increased; :oloni (tenant farmers) partly realaced slave labor; initially free, later argely reduced to serfdom by debt. Urban Growth. Population of Rome •eached one million; many cities arose IS centers of trade, communications, iefense; Alexandria, rich commercial.enter of Middle East; extensive coranerce flowed through port; Antioch, nd later Byzantium, thrived as trade :enters. Social Conditions. Classes less dis.inct; aristocracy reduced; commerce, :ivil service, patronage enabled low3orn classes to advance to power, even o Senate; decrease in slavery with define of war captives and increased iberation; remaining slaves better.reated; Edict of Caracalla granted dtizenship to all free men of provinces; women enjoyed many legal priv’leges, increased freedom; life sophislicated, cosmopolitan, Roman Law. commentaries and;ompilations continued; Gaius wrote Institutes, model for legal textbooks; aw, Rome’s greatest legacy, perpetuated in legal systems of European :ountries. Social Causes of Decline. Asiatic plague, 3fd century; birth rate, population declined; after 250 government froze kicial status and occupation; nerchants, businessmen, peasants, artms in servitude to state; great wealth 1 hands. of minority; increased unemloyment, serfdom;, lowered revenues; jov^^^nient forced to aid populace. ■jf^hes followed: and irrii¥8~ffie vTg~





Western Europe The period 500-1000 saw the prosperity and civilization achieved in Western Europe under Roman rule all but disappear. Roads and bridges fell in disrepair: trade languished; cities were abandoned; the torch of learning almost flickered out. Society disintegrated into thousands of isolated settlements where people fell back on their meager local resources to keep alive. By 1 000 the worst was over. Amid the inchoate conditions, close to barbarism, into which Western Europe had declined, a new society slowly took form. It was a society shaped around three great institutions. 1) The Catholic Church, headed by the bishops of Rome (popes) gave Western christendom religious unity. The priests and monks preserved the Latin language, the art of witing, and the doctrines of the Christian faith, 2) Feudalism, a system of landholding that involved military and administrative responsibilities for the landlord (nobles) and traditional dues and duties for the peasants (serfs) who w orked the land, developed haphazardly. It was a decentralized systern under which the lord of the manor was tlie virtual ruler of his local domain, and it reflected the fragmentation of medieval society. 3) The Holy Roman Empire. The g;reat Frankish conqueror charlemagne (768-814) was crowned ‘Roman Emperor’ by the pope in 800, The hope of reuniting Western Europe was never realized, but tlie concept of a ‘Holy Roman Empire’ was to survive for a thousand years (8001806).





Europe Manorial System. Basic rural political and economic unit of medieval life was manor or village; derived from Roman villa and German mark; held by lords with absolute authority; developed into largely self-sustaining, isolated agricultural communities. Land holding or Tenure. Holdings or fiefs were of any size, from single manor to dukedon or kingdom; fief held, not owned, conditional upon performance of obligations, usually military support; protection of fief, joint responsibility of noble landholder and suzerain or overlord; fief might be forfeited for landlord s failure to perform duties; held in trust for minor or widow; passed to eldest son through inheritance. Feudal Relationships. Noble, acting as both vassal of suzerain and overlord of fief, was core of feudal organization; vassal gave allegiance (formerly known as homage and fealty) and services to overlord; latter ‘invested’ vassal with land, and pledged, protection; vassal acted as lawmaker and judge for people of manor; administered land; sat on jury of peers in trials of fellow nobles; often resorted to private warfare to enforce decision. Chivalry. Code of behavior and conduct for nobility, culminating in knighthood; by 13th century, complex program of training, elaborate rules. Social Organization. (1) Nobility: reigning sovereign, lord, landholders (not owners); chief occupation, fighting, either for lord or king, or against rival noble; (2) noble-clergy: Church’s spiritual authority and vast landholdings made them powerful group; nonnoble clerics; (3) commoners: peasants, townspeople or burghers, merchants, bankers, professional people; (4) working classes: largest group, villeins (serfs); condition hereditary, bound to soil and service of lord; obliged to return part of land-produce to lord; smaller group of free tenants oaid rent from harvest, free to leave..mor; freemen increased as lords liberated serfs who were content to remain on land.





Agriculture. Remained chief occupation; land cultivated in strips; 2or 3-fieId system; unscientific methods; local famines frequent. Commerce. Italian trade, led by Venice, expanded steadily; inland trade with cities north of Alps obtained new products for export; exchange of merchandise between Italian and German traders at Bruges, Flemish port; trade revived throughout Western Europe with crusades; political, economic, religious expeditions; markets opened, new products introduced; trade concessions. Hanseatic League. Important German port-cities, Danzig, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Stettin, formed trade association; centers at Bruges, London; powerful. Guilds. Organized by merchants of rising towns; merchant guilds, trade associations for promotion of economic interests of members; controlled, monopolized external trade of town; gained political, social advantages; reached height, 12th century; superseded by craft guilds; varied by country; reflected specialization of. each business or trade; regulated wages, hours, conditions of labor; fixed prices and conditions of sale; standardized workmanship, quality of merchandise; tradesmen both artisan and merchant; only master craftsmen had full rights; social organization; schools, welfare, entertainment; Guild Hall; regulated recruitment and training; apprenticeship, followed by journeyman, worked for daily wages; when master, joined guild; professional men, lawyers, physicians, teachers, students also belonged to guilds. Fairs. Yearly gatherings of merchants; trade between towns; lasted several weeks; held several times a year; Champagne, France, popular fair. Coinage. Money value uncertain; lords often assumed coinage right, adding to unsoundness of currencies; money-changing became specialty; development of standard coins necessary; French, livre tournois and English pound sterling equal to one pound of silver pennies.





Europe By the middle of the 13th century European society had generated new forces within itself and new classes and new institutions were beginning to take shape. One evidence of this was the revival of trade and the growth of the towns, especially in Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries. These towns sometimes formed unions for mutual protection or to expand their commerce. In 1241 Hamburg and Liibeck became allies; other north German and scandinavian towns joined the union; and by the 14th century this ‘hanseatic League’ or loose federation of cities largely dominated the commerce of northern Europe. In Italy most of the north Italian towns had won virtual sovereignty by the close of the 12th century; in the 13th, leagues of towns were formed in nortliern and central Italy to resist the attempts of the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and of the popes to dominate them. Medieval agrarian society had been relatively static and stratified, with three main classes, the nobles, the clergy, and the peasants or serfs. With the revival of commerce and of town life a new group, the burgher class, gained importance. As their wealth increased, the townsmen purchased charters and immunities from their feudal overlords. The appearance of a growing, progressive, secular-minded group (burghers or bourgeoisie) introduced a dynamic element into medieval society that strained its framework and its institutions. By the 14th century these strains were becoming apparent. But the most serious social dislocation of that century resulted from a lethal bubonic plague, the Black Death, that entered Europe from the Middle East and killed possibly one-third of the population. It was followed by numerous popular insurrections as the peasants agitated for better working conditions. lebcs followcu;. ana,,in.:35o:inc:yjc-,;





Europe New economic conditions resulted in the formation of capitalistic enterprises; beginnings of modern corporation seen in joint-stock companies; commercial newspapers appeared along with advertisements and printed ‘price currents’; founding of government postal systems and stagecoach operations; banks with note-issuing powers and instruments of excliange stimulated commerce. General poverty and reduction of population resulting from Thirty Years’ War increased serfdom in Eastern Europe. NETHERLANDS. Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, succeeded in gaining control of most old Portuguese possessions in the East, including Moluccas, Malaya (1619), Ceylon (1636), thus controlling Spice Islands trade; established important settlements in Americas; Hugo Grotius advocated freedom of seas in important work, Mare Liberum, 1609; economic term ‘share’ introduced; tea imported into Netherlands; Amsterdam exchange built. FRANCE. French East India Company established, in attempt to enter trade competition in Asia; term ‘political economy’ introduced in treatise, Traite de i’economie politique, a study of mercantilism, by Montchr^tien. SPAIN. Expulsion of Moriscos (one-twelfth of population) weakened nation; these Christians of Moslem ancestry had been active in trade and agriculture; alcabala, tax of 10 per cent on all sales, hampered commerce..





Central ond Eastern Europe PRUSSIA (Brandenburg). Frederick William, needing money for his armies, introduced rigid economies, improved tax system, raised revenue of domains from 500,000 to 2 million thalers; built better communications, new roads and canals, postal system, stimulated trade; Hollanders received grants of land on condition they would teach brandenburgers better farming methods. RUSSIA. Peasant revolt in Southeast, led by Don Cossacks under Stephen Razin, suppressed with difficulty, 1670-1671; Peter the Great visited Western Europe, 1697; attempted to change a medieval society into a modern one; stimulated trade and manufacturing; encouraged mining of silver; founded more than a hundred factories; planned network of canals to link Russian rivers; experimentation with sheep-breeding, conservation, and other schemes never passed planning stage. Asia CHINA. Dutch entered Chinese trade, 1656; k’ang-hsi opened all Chinese ports to foreign trade, 1685. JAPAN. Great fire destroyed Edo, 1657; Genroku, period of chonin (townspeople) ascendancy, despite restrictive measures, 1688-1704; high bourgeois culture. INDIA, CEYLON. Dutch took Colombo (1656) and Jaffna, portugal’s last possession in Ceylon (1658); first French trading station in India, 1668; English settled in Calcutta, 1690. SIAM. Dutch gained monopoly of Siamese foreign trade by commercial treaty, 1664, but thwarted by French intrigue. Middle East In the Ottoman Empire Mohammed Kuprili, grand vizier, raised money by taxation and confiscations, 1656-61; French secured permission to trade in Persia; first Russian mission to Isfahan, 1664.





FRANCE. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13), last and longest of Louis XIV’s wars, overtaxed French resources. Britain, the netherlands, Austria, Prussia, Portugal, and (after 1703) Savoy (the Grand Alliance) fought France and Spain to keep Louis’ grandson from the Spanish throne. John Churchill, Duke of marlborough, and Prince Eugene of Savoy defeated the French (Blenheim, 1704, Ramillies, 1706, Turin, 1706, Oudenarde, 1708, Malplaquet, 1709), and Louis offered peace. After 1710, however, the Grand Alliance faltered. The Emperor Leopold I died in 1705, his son Joseph I in 1711, and Joseph’s brother. Archduke Charles, became emperor. Charles was the candidate of the Alliance for the Spanish throne, which threatened to create a Hapsburg (to avoid a Bourbon) preponderance. Britain withdrew (marlborough dismissed, 1711) and war ended in the Peace of Utrecht (1713) and of Rastadt (1714). The settlements provided that the Bourbon, Philip V (1700-35), would remain king of Spain on condition the crowns of Spain and France would never be united. When Louis XIV died in 1715 his great-grandson succeeded him as Louis XV of France (1715-74) The Hapsburg dynasty (having lost Spain) received the (Spanish) netherlands and Milan, Naples, and Sardinia. ITALY AND PRUSSIA. The Duke of Savoy received Sicily, traded it for Sardinia (1720), and styled himself King of Sardinia. The Elector of brandenburg (Prussia) acquired (Spanish) guelderland and assumed the title King of Prussia. These two new kingdoms, Sardinia and Prussia, were later to play important roles in the unification of Italy and Germany respectively.





Industries increased in hxnnber and variety despite opposition of the guilds and government regulation which served often to impede rather than accelerate development. Commerce was still hindered by poor methods of transportation and governmental restrictions. The ‘putting-ouf system and its sweatshop conditions continued to dominate the textile industry. The first of many technological improvements in England foreshadowed new developments in industrial production. Abram Darby successfully produced coke as fuel for smelting iron, 1709; John Kay invented the flying-shuttle used in weaving, 1733; and spinning macl^es were patented, 1738. Chartered compomes monopolized and expanded colonial trade.





Western Europe ENGLAND. Enclosure movement reached its height with passage of acts by Parliament making system general throughout country; loss of Thirteen American Colonies of North America and doctrine of laissez-faire urged by Smith led England to change her commercial policy toward her remaining colonies and to discard mercantilism; coal industry grew rapidly, iron exportation began; Pitt introduced income tax, 1799; Robert Owen successfully experimented with social reforms (New Lanark, Scotland, 1800); Malthus, economist and social philosopher, wrote famed study. Essay on the Principle of Population, 1798; Blackstone, outstanding jurist, published commentaries on Law of England, 1764-69; John Howard secured passage of Act of 1777 providing for better prison conditions. FRANCE. aristocracy, comprising 2 per cent of population, controlled more than two-thirds of the landed wealth; social injustice, arbitrary imprisonment under the letters de cachet, elements of feudalism evidenced in corvee (enforced labor on roads), tallies (land tax), and tithes (tenths to Church) kept peasants condition desperate and led to Revolution; Turgot, finance minister, tried to reform corrupt finances, break guild system that strangled trade, introduce economy in government, and tax the privileged classes; failed; Necker issued Compte Rendu, report on financial conditions, 1781, dismissed; during Revolution, assignats, paper currency, issued by National Assembly to redeem public debt and counterbalance deficit; freedom of trade introduced, 1791; power of guilds reduced; slavery abolished in colonies, 1794. ITALY. Cesare Beccaria, economist and jurist, anticipated theories of Smith and Malthus; important in criminal jurisprudence; advocated reforms that gained international acceptance. PORTUGAL. Great earthquake at Lisbon, 1755, accompanied by fire and flood, killed thousands.





Central ond Eastern Europe GERMANIES. Frederick II expanded trade with founding of Emden Trading Company, 1751; Codex Maximilianeus. Bavarian Civil Code, established 1756; serfdom abolished, Baden, 1783; Prussian general law code completed, 1788; Joseph II, Austria, abolished serfdom, granted religious toleration and freedom of press. RUSSIA. agricultural prosperity; little real economic improvement despite establishment of factories using serf labor; nobles secured official exemption from service, 1762, while condition of peasantry worsened; 94 per cent of total population serfs, 14 million property of state, 19 million property of nobility; Catherine set up Great Commission to study social reform, but nothing accomplished; actually responsible for spread of serfdom by awards of great tracts of land to favorites; social revolution of cossacks and peasants in southern Russia under Pugachev, 1773-75; suppressed with difficulty. Asia During reign of Ch ien Lung, China prospered; United States entered profitable Canton trade, 1784; in Japan, Dutch continued limited trade at Nagasaki; earthquake, 1751, great eruption of Mt. Asama, 1783, and famine in North came as climax to series of disasters that resulted in rice riots in Edo, 1787; in India, handloom textile industry threatened by English machine-made cloth; French controlled Bay of Bengal trade; Spanish Philippine Company organized, 1785; pen^ colonies established near Sydney, Australia, 1788. Africa Reign of Sidi Mohammed in Morocco, 1757-89, established law and order and abolished Christian slavery, 1777.





America British colonies of North America primarily agrarian; considerable capital and enterprise, but individually rather than group managed; no commercial banks; trade relied on British credit; colonies prospered until Colonial Currency Act created shortage of money (Sugar Act injured West Indian trade which had supplied necessary specie); Navigation Acts placed restrictions on commerce; passage of Sugar Act, 1764, Stamp Act, 1765, Townshend Acts, 1767, threatened to completely cripple colonial economy; during War of independence, tobacco production soared in South (even though ships were forced to run English blockade); closing of British markets stimulated colonial industry, increasing number of textile and small gun factories, foundries, etc.; labor costs doubled through lack of manpower; inflation increased; continental Congresses unable to tax effectively; new climate of economic freedom after 1776, but depression conditions existed; problems magnified by lack of union between colonies; acted as 13 separate units rather than as one nation (each state having its own tariff laws, for example); American ships entering British ports were heavily taxed; gradually trade was increased in the Baltic, and commercial treaties were signed with many countries. United States achieved economic and customs unity, 1789, and first bank of the United States established; first U. S. patent law passed, 1790; in the same year, ‘Benefit of Clergy’ ended in federal courts in criminal cases involving federal offenses. russo-american Company obtained a monopoly for Alaska, 1799.





World-Wide economic depression followed the end of the Napoleonic Wars, resulting In unemployment and dislocated economies. European markets failed to absorb English manufactures which had increased and prospered despite Napoleon s continental System of economic boycott. Social reformers tried to alleviate conditions of workers arising from industrial revolution. Economic theories of Hicardo, Mill, and others were popular with rising manufacturing class seeking low wages and freedom from governmental interference. Following successful launching of Fulton s steamboat, canal building in United States increased, and fur trade with China developed as Yankee ships sailed to all continents.





GERMANIES. Seventeen members of the Germanic confederation united with Prussia in customs union called Zollverein (suggested by List), 1834, tvhich brought a measure of economic unification; German manufacturers profited by reduction of internal trade barriers and by common tariff which partly protected them from French and British competition; first prohibition of child labor, in Prussia, 1839; first workmen’s union in Germany, 1844; founding of hamburg-america Line, 1847; Prussia again obliged tradesmen to join guilds, 1849; schulzedelitzch founded first credit associations for working classes; Raiffeisen instituted co-operative loan banks in Germany; serfdom abolished in Austria, 1848, and Sunday rest declared, 1850. SWEDEN. Opening of Gota Canal connecting North Sea with Baltic, 1832. RUSSIA. Through wars with Persia (1826-28) and Turkey (1828-29), extended gains and commercial concessions; Nicholas I issued new Code of Laws, 1832, an attempt to alleviate conditions of serfs and limit powers of landlords; more serfs could not be bought than land could adequately support, 1827; owners could not break up families of serfs and sell them separately, 1833; however, serfs (more than half the population) remained largely at mercy of landlords; ruble stabilized, and new currency issued backed by gold, 1839; first Russian railroad (16 miles), St. Petersburg to Tsarkoe Selo, 1838; no free newspapers and no criticism of government tolerated.





GENERAL. World wide trade with Britain retaining lead; nine-tenths of financial transactions in international market conducted in pounds sterling, 1871-1914. Europe’s population increased almost 50 per cent; 25 million Europeans migrated to the United States, 1871-1914. ENGLAND. First employers’ Liability Act, 1880, compensated workers for injuries incurred which were not their own fault; Irish Acts, 1881-91, included Land Court to fix rents, designed to protect peasants’ tenure and allow them compensation for selfmade improvements (succeeded only in reducing rents); Land Purchase Act of 1891 allowed tenant to borrow from government to purchase land; Sidney and Beatrice Webb founded the Fabian Society, 1884; slum clearance began with housing for workers, 1890; Miners’ Federation of Great Britain, 1888, marked extension of trade unionism to less skilled workers; National consumers’ League, 1890 (in U. S., 1899), organized to promote better conditions for workers by encouraging the purchase of articles made and sold under good working conditions. FRANCE. Trade unions recognized by law, 1884; criminal law modified; right of divorce recognized, 1884; creation of more hygienic conditions and medical care for labor, 1893; 10-hour day, Sunday free, and more protection for women and children. Act of 1892, most labor unions joined General confederation of Labor, 1895; Workmen s compensation Law passed, 1898. SPAIN. Economic development of country led to increasing labor unrest; under liberal prime minister, Sagasta, 1886-90, civil code and introduction ot trial by jury, more liberal press an association laws., u j ITALY. Bank of Italy established, 1893; law forbade state banks to advance loans on real estate, limited tlieir powers of discount, reduced paper money maximum; limited attempts to better economic conditions an. balance budget.





Rapid growth of cities after Civil War stimulated by rise of population and business enterprise; immigration in 1880’s alone of more than five million Europeans; vast majority settled in cities, creating social problems and overcrowding; slum areas and extremely bad conditions resulted; over 17 million employed in factories by 1898, with only 500,000 belonging to unions; labor’s determination to organize, secure better working conditions, and use force if necessary to gain ends resulted in 37,000 strikes between 1881 and 1904; formation of American Federation of Labor, 1886; Haymarket Riot, 1886; Homestead Strike, 1892; Pullman Strike, 1894 (Debs and American Railway Union): invention of electric light, 1879, and opening of electric power plants, 1880’s; invention of telephone by Bell, 1876; American Telephone and Telegraph became over-all holding company of entire Bell system by 1900; 1.350.000 telephones in use at that time; by 1878, Western Union owned 195.000 miles of telegraph routes and controlled 80 per cent of the telegraph business; opening of West continued; from 1870 to 1900, 430,000 new acres of land settled; open-range cattle industry became one most profitable in country until disastrous years of late 1880’s; agricultural production boomed, although Canada, India, and Australia entered world wheat market and revival of Russian production created competition; Chinese excluded by Act of 1882; Interstate Commerce Act regulating railloads, 1887; McKinley Tariff, 1890; gold rush to Klondike, Alaska, 1897; bland-allison Act, 1878, passed to provide for freer coinage of silver, replaced by Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1890; growth of large trusts resulted in passage of Sherman AntiTrust Act, 1890.





Europe GERMANY. Opening of Imperial Bank (reichsbank), an institution that played a major role in economic development of country; under Bismarck, social legislation, 1881-90, included workmen’s compensation, 1883, regulation of women’s and children’s labor in industry, 1887; improved factory conditionsallowed trade unions to grow and provided for labor exchanges; protective tariff, 1879, aided infant industries, also provided federal government with revenue and decreased its dependence on states, for money; commercial treaties with favored countries reduced some agricultural duties and lowered prices of foods; Agrarian League organized; General Commission of Trade Unions, 1890; Kiel Canal built across Danish peninsula, 1887-95. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Gold standard adopted in 1892. NETHERLANDS. Income tax adopted, 1892; Dutch Labor Party organized 1894. RUSSIA. Last relic of serfdom, the poll tax, abolished, 1884; gold standard adopted, 1898.





By the end of the 19th century, the invention of the camera and the scientific discoveries involving the nature of light inspired artists to explore new techniques and means of expression. Cezanne, great master of post-impressionism and forerunner of Cubism and abstract form, became the founder of modem art. Monet, technical innovator of the impressionists, painted landscapes under different conditions of light. Seurat created pointillism Gauguin and van Gogh pioneered Expressionism. Degas and toulouse-lautrec worked as Linear Impressionists. Rodin, outstanding sculptor of the century, developed Expressive Realism. Whistler. Sargent, Eakins, and Ryder represented the various forms of expression adopted by the American artists.





Centrol and Eastern ^ Europe Between 1900 and 1925 Germany ranked highest on Nobel Prize lists for/ achievements in physics, chemistry, and medicine, winning 24 awards. Great advances in synthetic chemistry created new products for industry and agriculture. AUSTRIA. Freud, Sigmund. Psychiatrist; founder of psydioanalysis; emphasized role of subconscious mind and desires: attributed importance to suppressed sexual impulses, childhood experiences; important influence on modem thought. Adler, Alfred. Psychiatrist; established School of Individual Psychology, Vienna; founded Journal in tliis field, 1914; suggested ‘inferiority complex’ as important key to problems. GERMANY. Planck, Max. Physicist; notable achievement, revolutionary ‘quantum theory’; great influence on theoretical physics; Nobel Prize, 1918. Wertheimer, Max. Gestalt psychologist; discovered phi phenomenon (illusion of motion) 1910-12; with Kohler, Koffka, introduced macroscopic approach to study of psychological problems. Ehrlich, Paul. 1845-1915. Bacteriologist: shared 1908 Nobel Prize with metchnikoff for work in immunology (treated syphilis). SWITZERLAND. Jong, Carl. Psychiatrist; founder, school of analytical psycholog); mystical approach. RUSSIA. Pavlov, Ivan. experimental psychologist; known for studies of conditioned reflexes, 1910; Nobel, 1904, for work on digestive glands. NETHERLANDS. Vries, Hugo de. Botanist; applied experimental method to Mendel’s laws; developed theory of mutation. Eijkman, Christian. 1858-1930. Physician; shared Nobel, award, 1929. DENMARK. Fibiger, Johannes. 1867-r 1928. pathologist, first to produce cancer in stomach of rats; Nobel, 1926. Poulsen, Valdemar. 1869-1942. Electrical engineer; invented high-frequency Poulsen arc used in wireless telegraphy and radio, 1902; telegraphone. ®